Pope Leo XIII (b. 2 March 1810 – d. 20 July 1903), born Gioacchino Vincenzo Raffaele Luigi Pecci, began his pontificate on 20 February 1878. His papacy is the fourth longest in the history of the Church. He is known for his intellect, for having composed the Prayer to Archangel St Michael and for combating modern errors.
On 29 June 1881, he published the encyclical “Diuturnum” on the origin of civil power. This publication is no surprise given the revolutions and the widespread seditious mentality in Europe during that time. It is approximately 5,200 words in 28 paragraphs.
Leo XIII begins by reminding the audience of the propaganda war against rulers (without using those words) and citing the example of Russian Emperor Alexander II who was then-recently assassinated on 13 March 1881.
2. For a long time, indeed, pains have been taken to render rulers the object of contempt and hatred to the multitude. The flames of envy thus excited have at last burst forth, and attempts have been several times made, at very short intervals, on the life of sovereign princes, either by secret plots or by open attacks. The whole of Europe was lately filled with horror at the horrible murder of a most powerful emperor. …
He then gives a general reminder that the Church has always taught mutual duty between authority and those who are under said authority.
3. These perils to commonwealth, which are before Our eyes, fill Us with grave anxiety, when We behold the security of rulers and the tranquillity of empires, together with the safety of nations, put in peril almost from hour to hour. … For in the precepts and example of Christ our Lord there is a wonderful force for restraining in their duty as much those who obey as those who rule; and for keeping between them that agreement which is most according to nature…
After the introductory paragraphs, Leo XIII then elaborates on the issue starting with the obvious, that there has to be some authority. That is simply the “nature” of things, which is consistent with what is mentioned above.
4. Although man, when excited by a certain arrogance and contumacy, has often striven to cast aside the reins of authority, he has never yet been able to arrive at the state of obeying no one. …
According to liberalist philosophy, power belongs to the people (as, for example, is held by the modern idea of democracy). If this is true, then it follows that people can delegate as well as revoke ruling authority, which obviously does not make sense.
5. Indeed, very many men of more recent times, walking in the footsteps of those who in a former age assumed to themselves the name of philosophers, say that all power comes from the people; so that those who exercise it in the State do so not as their own, but as delegated to them by the people, and that, by this rule, it can be revoked by the will of the very people by whom it was delegated. …
The issue is not the form of government. As long as it is just, then it does not matter what it is. There is also nothing wrong with the people choosing their ruling authority as long as it does not imply authority being “conferred”.
6. It is of importance, however, to remark in this place that those who may be placed over the State may in certain cases be chosen by the will and decision of the multitude, without opposition to or impugning of the Catholic doctrine. And by this choice, in truth, the ruler is designated, but the rights of ruling are not thereby conferred. …
Ultimately, authority comes from God. Leo XIII cites a few scriptural references which there is no point repeating here. He also mentions how the Early Church maintained this teaching, citing St Augustine, St John Chrysostom and Pope St Gregory I the Great. For example:
St John Chrysostom says: “That there are kingdoms, and that some rule, while others are subject, and that none of these things is brought about by accident or rashly … is, I say, a work of divine wisdom.”
Such authority must come from God because there is no reason to think that one man has “the power of constraining the free will of others”.
But no man has in himself or of himself the power of constraining the free will of others by fetters of authority of this kind. This power resides solely in God, the Creator and Legislator of all things; and it is necessary that those who exercise it should do it as having received it from God.
This includes every kind of power such as the ministerial priesthood and the father of the family.
Also, if such authority does not come from God but rather from men, then it is as if one has “given up something of his right, and that voluntarily every person has put himself into the power of the one man in whose person the whole of those rights has been centered”. This detracts from human dignity.
It is because authority comes from God that, as already mentioned, those in power “should do it as having received it from God” and
…citizens to submit themselves and to be obedient to rulers, as to God, not so much through fear of punishment as through respect for their majesty; nor for the sake of pleasing, but through conscience, as doing their duty.
This teaching is repeated by Apostle St Paul and Pope St Peter in Romans 13 and 1 Peter 2 respectively.
Of course, there are limits to civil authority.
15. The one only reason which men have for not obeying is when anything is demanded of them which is openly repugnant to the natural or the divine law, for it is equally unlawful to command to do anything in which the law of nature or the will of God is violated. If, therefore, it should happen to any one to be compelled to prefer one or the other, viz., to disregard either the commands of God or those of rulers, he must obey Jesus Christ, who commands us to “give to Caesar the things that are Caesar’s, and to God the things that are God’s,” [Matthew 22:21] and must reply courageously after the example of the Apostles: “We ought to obey God rather than men.” [Acts 5:29] And yet there is no reason why those who so behave themselves should be accused of refusing obedience; for, if the will of rulers is opposed to the will and the laws of God, they themselves exceed the bounds of their own power and pervert justice; nor can their authority then be valid, which, when there is no justice, is null.
Note that Leo XIII explicitly states that disobedience to civil authority is only valid in cases where what is compelled violates natural or divine law and assumes no other choices are available.
He also emphasizes that those in political office rule for the benefit “of those who have been committed to their care” and that they should “rule over the people with equity and faithfulness, and let them add to that severity, which is necessary, a paternal charity”.
On this account they are warned in the oracles of the sacred Scriptures, that they will have themselves some day to render an account to the King of kings and Lord of lords; if they shall fail in their duty, that it will not be possible for them in any way to escape the severity of God: “The Most High will examine your work and search out your thoughts: because being ministers of his kingdom you have not judged rightly … Horribly and speedily will he appear to you, for a most severe judgment shall be for them that bear rule … For God will not accept any man’s person, neither will he stand in awe of any man’s greatness; for he made the little and the great, and he hath equally care of all. But a greater punishment is ready for the more mighty. [Wisdom 6]
Leo XIII mentions that Apostle St Paul and the Early Church have always taught obedience to civil authority, even when they were pagan.
There is also a remarkable testimony to the same point in the Epistle to Diognetus, which confirms the statement that the Christians at that period were not only in the habit of obeying the laws, but in every office they of their own accord did more, and more perfectly, than they were required to do by the laws. “Christians observe these things which have obtained the sanction of the law, and in the character of their lives they even go beyond the law.”
Although Leo XIII does not explicitly explain it, it reads like he is teaching that Christians are to disobey only in matters in which it contradicts the laws of God and when there is no other choice, to maintain order and not fall into anarchy for even disobedience does not necessarily mean sedition, and not giving more ammunition to others to use against the Church. All this sets a good example and may serve to convert others, possibly including those in power.
A truly Christian government is obviously preferred but regardless, modern thought against authority typically does not work out well.
23. On the other hand, the doctrines on political power invented by late writers have already produced great ills amongst men, and it is to be feared that they will cause the very greatest disasters to posterity. For an unwillingness to attribute the right of ruling to God, as its Author, is not less than a willingness to blot out the greatest splendor of political power and to destroy its force. And they who say that this power depends on the will of the people err in opinion first of all; then they place authority on too weak and unstable a foundation. For the popular passions, incited and goaded on by these opinions, will break out more insolently; and, with great harm to the common weal, descend headlong by an easy and smooth road to revolts and to open sedition. In truth, sudden uprisings and the boldest rebellions immediately followed in Germany the so-called Reformation, the authors and leaders of which, by their new doctrines, attacked at the very foundation religious and civil authority; and this with so fearful an outburst of civil war and with such slaughter that there was scarcely any place free from tumult and bloodshed. From this heresy there arose in the last century a false philosophy—a new right as it is called, and a popular authority, together with an unbridled license which many regard as the only true liberty. Hence we have reached the limit of horrors, to wit, communism, socialism, nihilism, hideous deformities of the civil society of men and almost its ruin.
Once there is “open sedition”, civil authority responds harshly. Even if this may be right to a certain extent, such re-establishment of peace relies on fear which breeds more problems.
For fear, as St Thomas admirably teaches, “is a weak foundation; for those who are subdued by fear would, should an occasion arise in which they might hope for immunity, rise more eagerly against their rulers, in proportion to the previous extent of their restraint through fear.” And besides, “from too great fear many fall into despair; and despair drives men to attempt boldly to gain what they desire.”
Leo XIII concludes with a general reminder that the Church has always taught respect for civil authority and in this way served as a “protection”. Therefore, civil authority has every incentive to cooperate with the Church. The Church has also always taught that civil authority must behave justly for the benefit of the people.
Never opposed to honest liberty, the Church has always detested a tyrant’s rule. This custom which the Church has ever had of deserving well of mankind is notably expressed by St Augustine when he says that “the Church teaches kings to study the welfare of their people, and people to submit to their kings, showing what is due to all: and that to all is due charity and to no one injustice.”
In the context of the modern era, Leo XIII gives a slightly more specific reminder to
…fly from the forbidden sects, to abhor all conspiracy, to have nothing to do with sedition, and let them understand that they who for God’s sake obey their rulers render a reasonable service and a generous obedience.
Although not explicitly named, it is clear that “forbidden sects” refers to the likes of freemasonry.
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